Part 5 - The appearance & construction of Democracy - childhood to maturity in Greece
/Pericles was a member of the highest ranks of the aristocracy. And, importantly, his education went considerably beyond the traditional upper class education. He was heavily influenced by substantial training and education from two of the most highly regarded intellectuals of his time - Damon (Athenian) and Anaxagoras (Ionian). As mentioned previously, Iona was the birthplace of the notion that the natural world could be understood rationally through the power of intellect and reason. Anaxagoras was part of a long line of philosophers who worked within this tradition. Here again, we will see the power of ideas in effect even in a time of near constant warfare and an emphasis on military power.
Pericles was also a skilled and brave military leader but it was in the realm of the mind and the political arena that he towered above other Greek leaders, before and after. Thucydides, Socrates, Plutarch, and Cicero all agreed that: “his intelligence, his ability to judge the right course of action, his well-known incorruptibility, and his capacity to control and persuade the people as his main virtues and the source of his unique influence. His rhetorical prowess was especially acclaimed in his time and throughout antiquity.” (Mitchell). His “package” of skills and attributes was perfectly suited to fifth-century Athenian democracy, leading to great power for Pericles: “His commanding position, which he held with the free consent of a sovereign demos, was a remarkable phenomenon, and provides a first and striking example of how in a democracy force of personality and moral power (auctoritas) can supplement legal power (potestas) to give de facto dominance to one person.”(Mitchell)
On the one hand, we see that democracy began to reach a pinnacle in its development, on the other hand, the power of one person reached a new decidedly anti-democratic level. Just as with the contradictions in the democracies of today, again and again we will see that as democracy developed it was accompanied by numerous faults, flaws, and shortcomings. While a tempting conclusion, this need not result in discouragement - it simply points out that broader contradictions are hard-wired into in our species. These contradictions need to be acknowledged and identified and ongoing efforts made to reduce their power. We are inherently contradictory beings and thus so are our laws and political structures. It is not difficult to image a different sort of leader taking power in a democracy but without the moral and ethical component exemplified by Pericles.
The power of Pericles resulted in major change to Athens and democracy in four interrelated ways: movement toward a fuller version of democracy; very significant growth in military power; the further development of a significant empire; and the first period of Enlightenment in European history. This Enlightenment was a direct result of Greek democracy: “an eagerness for cultural eminence that would enrich the lives of citizens and declare to the world the glories and the primacy of a divinely favored people who excelled not only in military heroics and political organization, but in the domains of the mind.” (Mitchell)
Notable constitutional changes were introduced in the first 10 years of Pericles rule:
The hoplite (lower) class were allowed to vote in the initial selection of candidates from which Archons were chosen, the Areopagus. As noted previously the Archonship was stripped of most its power. Nonetheless, the office still had considerable prestige and this change made the Areopagus a more widely representative body.
Pay for jurors was introduced as a way to ensure that the lower classes could participate in the large system of jury courts. In addition, this practice expanded dramatically to other areas, providing pay for service to those holding non-elective offices, serving in the army and navy, and members of the Council. This is the beginning of practice of a state public bureaucracy.
Selection by lot was adopted for the filling all magistrate positions with the exception of generals and those requiring special expertise. Selection by lot was a revolutionary political leveler that affirmed a key foundation of political equality - no elite should have a monopoly over political affairs.
The definition of citizenship was narrowed to only those whose parents were both Athenian citizens. While not entirely clear, it is possible and plausible that this was due to the increased interaction between Athens and its allies an increase in intermarriage between Athenians and others. This law represents a key component of both Athens and all other Greek societies; a focus on limiting the size of the citizenry and maintaining an ethnic identity with a common culture, traditions, and religions.
This last change merits some additional discussion. The Athenians had “no element of pluralism in their outlook. It is a culture that fostered strong feelings of national pride, loyalty, commitment and patriotism, intensified by a strengthening democratic system that empowered ordinary citizens and made them feel in charge of their destiny.” This was a strongly ethnic nationalism that both increased the development of internal democracy, and was a justification for expansionary nationalism leading to imperial power. So again another contradiction - the exclusionary nationalism of Athens was fertile ground for both democracy’s development, and, imperialism. However, to be fair, our species had sought power and empire long before democracy developed and many moves in this direction have been fully and decidedly anti-democratic up until the the present day.
In any case, the reforms of Pericles were the final major evolution of fifth century democracy. These were of course not without controversy in their day. Portions of the aristocracy and other contemporary critics of democracy, saw selection by lot and pay for public service (opening up holding public office to the poor) as giving too much power to the masses, creating the possibility that the government could be reduced to a dictatorship of the poor. This was a worry that vexed the framers of the American constitution even as they sought to develop a reborn version of democracy. That is, some want democracy but not too much of it.
In the next post, I will outline the key components of Pericles famous funeral oration (431 BC - to commemorate those who died in the first year of the Peloponnesian War). This oration, written down by the historian, Thucydides (who may have actually heard the speech) is the “only contemporary analysis of the character of the democracy by a proponent, and it has obvious importance coming from a significant architect of the system and an intellectual with the capacity to articulate its social and political foundations.” (Mitchell)
